Teaching and Learning > DISCOURSE

Spooky Spirituality: Exploring the Paranormal in HE

Author: Mark Plater

Journal Title: Discourse

ISSN: 1741-4164

ISSN-L: 1741-4164

Volume: 9

Number: 2

Start page: 99

End page: 112

Return to vol. 9 no. 2 index page

Abstract

In this article I explore the place of paranormal phenomena in the life and experience of contemporary British society and ask why it is that our undergraduate religious studies courses so predictably avoid the topic. Adraft module specification is offered as a possible approach to teaching the subject.

Widespread experience of the paranormal

In a nationwide survey sponsored by the BBC as part of its new millennium series, Soul of Britain, the British public were asked a number of questions relating to their spiritual lives (Hay & Hunt, 2000). Responses to a question about whether they had, 'been aware of, or influenced by a presence or power, whether they call it God or not, which is different from their everyday selves' were enlightening: 75% of respondents said that they were aware of such a spiritual dimension to their experience. This compared with a 48% positive response rate to the same question posed by Gallup in 1987 (Hay & Heald, 1987), a percentage increase which exactly reflects the percentage of decrease in church attendance over the same time period (Hay, 2002). Of the 75% identified in the BBC sponsored survey, 58% referred to an unfolding pattern of events in their life which gave meaning beyond their own making; 38% referred to an awareness of the presence of God; 29% to a sacred awareness or connectedness with nature; 25% considered that they had been in touch with someone who was dead; and, 25% had experienced an evil or malevolent presence (Hay, 2002).

On a wider international front, according to Jakub Pawlinkowski, 'a great majority in modern Western societies (including physicians) share a belief in miracles' (Pawlikowski, 2007, p1234). Pawlinkowski cites recent surveys of doctors in both USA and Poland in an order to support his claim (Kirschenbaum, 2007; Pawlinkowski et. al., 2006).

With three out of every four adults in Britain thus indicating awareness of a mysterious or paranormal dimension to their lives, and evidence that a majority of American and Polish doctors believe in miracles, we might assume that scientists, philosophers and theologians would be keen to explore this dimension further in order to make greater sense of it. Instead, the opposite seems to be the case.

Responses to public interest in paranormal phenomena

Mark Fox (Fox, 1996) identifies five forms of published responses to growing interest in paranormal phenomena and New Age attempts to integrate such experiences into a meaningful whole-life perspective: first, publications by self-proponents of New Age movements, often in the form of auto-biography (eg. Shirley MacLaine,1 David Icke); secondly, perspectives from scientists within the mainstream, orthodox scientific community, particularly members of CSICOP, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, including their quarterly journal, the Skeptical Inquirer2; thirdly, responses from orthodox religious communities, which have been largely negative, particularly in the case of responses from fundamentalist Christians; fourthly, interpretations from academics within the social, psychological and anthropological sciences, often attempting to understand the nature and causes of belief in paranormal phenomena; and lastly, journalistic explorations and critiques of New Age movements and the paranormal.

Social science perspectives

A review of the literature relating to belief in the paranormal from a social-sciences perspective offers an interesting indication of the nature and concerns of such research (Irwin, 1993). In his review for the Parapsychology Foundation Inc., Harvey Irvin summarises the range of questions which have been explored: these include a study of demographic correlates between belief in paranormal and the social marginality hypothesis (i.e. that people most susceptible to paranormal belief are members of socially marginal groups); studies of beliefs and practices associated with the paranormal and the worldview hypothesis (i.e. that people who believe in or practice paranormal activities are likely also to have other subjective and/or esoteric beliefs & practices); studies of cognitive aspects associated with paranormal belief, in order to explore the cognitive deficits hypothesis (i.e. that those who believe in such phenomena are intellectually credulous, illogical, uncritical or otherwise cognitively inadequate); studies of aspects of personality and their correlations with paranormal belief in order to explore the psychodynamic functions hypothesis (e.g. that such beliefs serve a social or psychological needs function of some kind, such as the need for a sense of control over the world as a result of childhood trauma). It is immediately obvious from this quick overview of the literature on paranormal belief that a great deal of the research assumes a sceptical perspective or else seeks to challenge such scepticism.

Responses from established religion

Such scepticism from the social sciences is unsurprising: for instance, paranormal experiences are one of the main indicators for the diagnosis of schizophrenia3 (W.H.O., 2007). There is also no doubt that some claims about paranormal experience have been wildly exaggerated, and, often later proved to be unfounded. Examples of such phenomena include the Cottingley fairy photos, later admitted as a hoax.4 Of particular interest to me however as a student and teacher of world religions, is the link between the paranormal and mainstream religion. As outlined above, it is fascinating to note that public awareness of paranormal experiences increased in direct inverse proportion to a decrease in formal religious commitment (Church attendance) between 1987 and the year 2000 in the UK. These two statistics cannot be proved to have a direct influence on each other, but the extent and direction of the comparative figures is intriguing. On the other hand, it is hardly surprising that traditional Christian churches have been less than affirming in their response to New Age movements, and to the many paranormal phenomena that such groups make reference to. These groups may be seen as competition to the Church in that they offer alternative explanations for phenomena which might historically have remained unquestioned within a narrow worldview shaped by religious doctrine. For the last few centuries however, the Church has had an ambivalent relationship with the world of miracles and the supernatural. Many theologians have sought to throw off the mantle of apparent superstition that such phenomena imply, preferring a modern mindset in which reason and scientific method prevail as the dominant perspective. In his brief summary of the history of western thinking about miracles Jakub Pawlikowski reminds us that this was not always so (Pawlikowski, 2007): historically, much related philosophical debate has been about the nature and definition of miracles rather than about whether or not they had physically occurred. Particularly in more recent centuries, arguments have focussed on such matters as whether all of existence was a miracle (Schleiermacher, 1768-1834), whether Hume's case against miracles was a mere circular argument (Lewis, 1947), whether they were better thought of as 'signs' of God's activity for those who choose to believe (Pascal: 1623-1662), and so on.

Educational responses to New Age and the paranormal

In surveying the breadth of literature on the subject of New age and the paranormal, Mark Fox identifies three particular contemporary educational perspectives in response to the growth of interest and belief in New Age ideas and practices (Fox, 1996, p27): the view by some Christians that such interest represents a failure by the Church to provide sound Christian teaching (Cole et. al., 1990); the view by some science teachers that such interest represents a failure to provide sound science education (eg. Eve & Dunn, 1990; Padian, 1993); the view (e.g. by James Lett, 1991) that it is the fault of an irresponsible mass media, 'who exploit the public taste for nonsense' (Lett, cited in Fox, 1996 p27). In the higher education context, Lett's response to the challenge of such 'pseudo-science' has been to 'FILCH-proof' anthropology students, offering courses which aim to immunise them against acceptance of evidence which is not Falsifiable, Logical, Comprehensive, Honest, Replicable and Sufficient (FILCHeRS). In a similar vein Richard Wesp (Wesp, 1998) uses the study of paranormal phenomena as a means for developing critical thinking skills in psychology students, arguing that such material is ideal because of the novel nature of the concepts and the opportunities provided for critical evaluation of scientific study methods.

However, although biologists, chemists and social scientists might balk at the idea of miracles or other such phenomena as apparently defying established laws of science, nuclear physicists are struggling to make sense of quantum discoveries in their field which also defy everything that Newtonian wisdom taught them: the discovery for instance, that, at the sub-atomic level, existence seems to be dependent on the presence of an observer.5 This seems more in keeping with the Buddhist concept of anatta than of Newtonian physics.

Religious education and the paranormal

The study and practice of religions has always included an exploration of the esoteric. Almost every religion has its mystics, saints and miracle workers. Indeed, historians of religion propose that all religious myths, rites and doctrines are rooted in attempts by mankind to explain the unexplainable. One might therefore expect religious educators to be interested in such mysteries, precisely because they don't fit within the normal range of everyday experience and our contemporary understanding of the world. Why is it then that the academic study of theology and religion, both in schools and universities, fails to include an exploration of such phenomena? It would seem to me that there are six possible reasons for this: first, it could be that academic scholarship into religious phenomena considers that it already deals sufficiently with such matters: in referring to angels, demons, miracles and such like within the scriptures and teachings of different faiths, and in exploring different philosophical perspectives on miracles and good and evil, such issues are already more than adequately covered. A second possibility is that religious academia considers that such matters are either not relevant, or else are of no interest to, those who study religions and theology. In other words, because religious scholars are concerned first and foremost with those experiences that are contained within the religious life, any wider unexplained or mysterious phenomena, found outside of formal religion, are more appropriately dealt with by other scholars—psychologists and anthropologists, for instance. A third possibility is that such mysterious phenomena are not explored within the subject simply because the material is religiously and culturally unorthodox: since it is not identified within the major religious denominations as an area of worthwhile consideration, and since it is not included in approved scientific fields of enquiry, so, likewise, religious scholars see no place for it within their own field of study. A fourth possibility is that the world of scholarship, across all of the historically recognised fields of academic study, are convinced that such phenomena are not worthy of serious consideration. Because contemporary academia is founded on rationalism and empiricism—the foundations of Enlightenment thinking—it could be that experiences which explicitly challenge that perspective are intrinsically suspect, and therefore intentionally excluded from serious debate. A fifth possibility is that there is an unspoken but powerful taboo against any recognition of such phenomena within religious academia. The concept of taboo is an interesting one: such requirements or prohibitions are either socially or religiously determined, and they often relate to practices or ideas that are considered sacred, or else for other reasons, out of bounds. Sigmund Freud postulated that there were usually strong unconscious factors determining the requirements of taboo, in addition to any rational, sociological or psychological reasoning (Freud, 1913). Could it be that a taboo against exploration of the paranormal has clouded the eyes of the religious academy to such an extent that even the possibility of such study has not been critically considered? The sixth, but most unlikely possibility, it seems to me, is that religious academia has not engaged with paranormal phenomena because it does not feel comfortable or competent to do so: the material has never been included in undergraduate courses so academics themselves feel insecure in presenting any such material to others, not knowing quite how to approach it.

In this short paper I am not attempting to suggest which if any of these six possibilities, or any others, is the basis for any lack of serious engagement by religious studies departments, but I do consider that none of the above offers a substantive argument against the inclusion of any such phenomena within undergraduate theological modules or religious studies courses.

How then should we approach the topic in religious studies courses?

If we are to approach this subject as a field of genuine academic enquiry then, it goes without saying that we must approach it with an open mind. We will take it on ourselves to consider the range of different explanations and assumptions which have been attributed to, or imposed upon, the subject matter, but we will also consider each of these dispassionately, since we are searching for meaning and explanation rather than ultimate definition. The aim of our endeavour therefore is to explore, to unpack, and to expand the various experiences of individuals and communities, but also to explain the various meanings and interpretations that have been attributed to them by both religious and non-religious communities.

Perhaps one of the first tasks in any academic study is that of mapping the field of enquiry. I propose that in this case, we should encompass both phenomena that are particularly pertinent to religious believers (miracles, angelic visitations, healings, answers to prayer, etc.) and those that are less obviously so (for instance, UFO sightings, ghosts, apparitions, etc.). Of course, the field is too vast to cover everything, and so attempts should be made to include a suitable range of varied examples, perhaps leaving open scope for students to make their own individual studies of specific phenomena or particular experiences.

The purpose of the study can never be just to describe and define however. As in every other field of serious enquiry, this exploration must ultimately be interested in seeking after truth. The student will want to know how we are ultimately to give meaning to experiences that seem to defy our normal, everyday (rational-scientific), forms of meaning-making. And this is where the student of philosophy and religious studies comes into his or her own; not that s/he has any ultimate answers, but that this is familiar territory. Where empirical scientists may struggle to gain hard evidence, or to make sense of any positive evidence of paranormal phenomena that they do encounter, students of the liberal arts may enjoy a wider scope for meaning-making. Regardless of the outcomes of clinical trials and quantitative evidence, something can still be said about the significance and power of the 'abnormal' in giving purpose and meaning to life.

The attached module outline (Appendix1, to be found at the end of this paper) offers an initial tentative draft for a study of the paranormal. At present this has been neither trialled, nor even critically scrutinised, so it is offered as a very rough-and-ready version of what might ultimately be presented as a validated module.6

I offer only one further comment on the attached module outline: there are those who would argue that we should avoid use of the terms 'para'-normal, or 'super'-natural, preferring instead such expressions as 'unexplained' or 'mysterious'. The argument goes that the former assumes a status for such phenomena that is outside of nature, and, if outside of nature, then this might imply that they are the work of a higher power or intelligence. Such language thus provides a stumblingblock both to secular-empiricists and to religious non-dualists. It would seem more reasonable therefore, so the argument goes, to avoid terminology that unnecessarily acts as a red rag to a bull. On the other hand however, the terms paranormal and supernatural are common parlance in literature, film and media, and they evoke the sense of mystery and intrigue which gives this subject it's power in the popular imagination. Lyall Watson in his classic book (Watson, 1973) uses the term Supernature, but, to me, this also gets us no closer to resolving the tension between the two opposing perspectives. I prefer to use the term paranormal therefore, but would insist that part of any study of such phenomena should also include within it an exploration of exactly what we mean by 'para' and 'normal' in this respect.

I would be very keen to receive further reflections, comments or information on this topic, and can be contacted at mark.plater@bishopg.ac.uk.

References

Cole, M., Graham, J., Higton, T., & Lewis, D., What is the New Age? (London: Hodder, 1990).

Eve R., & Dunn, D., 'Psychic Powers, Astrology & Creationism in the Classroom?' The American Biology Teacher, 52:1 (1990) pp. 10-21.

Fox, M., 'What Should We Do About the New Age? Exploring the Role of Religious Education in the Examination of a Cultural Phenomenon', British Journal of Religious Education, 19:1 (1996) pp. 24-32.

Freud, S., Totem and Taboo, (London: Routledge, 1913)

Hay, D., 'The Spirituality of Adults in Britain – Recent Research', Scottish Journal of Healthcare Chaplaincy, 5:1(2002) pp. 4- 9.

Hay, D., & Heald, G., 'Religion is good for you', New Society (17 April 1987).

Hay, D., & Hunt, K., Understanding the Spirituality of People who don't go to Church, Final report: Adult Spirituality Project, (Nottingham University, 2000).

Irwin, 'Belief in the Paranormal: A Review of the Empirical Literature', Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 87:1(1993) pp. 1-39.

Kirschembaum, S. 'Science or Miracle' (2004) HCD Research. Available at: http://www.hcdi.net/News/PressRelease.cfm?ID=47 (Accessed 07.04.10)

Lett, J., 'A Field Guide to Critical Thinking', in Frazier, K., (ed.) The Hundredth Monkey and Other Paradigms of the Paranormal, (NY: Prometheus, 1991)

Lewis, C. S., Miracles. A Preliminary Study, (NY: MacMillan, 1947)

Padian, K., 'Improving Science Teaching: The Textbook Problem', Skeptical Inquirer, 17:4 (1993) pp. 388-393.

Pawlinowski, J., et.al., 'The Belief in Miracles Among Students of Medicine', Ann UMCS Sect. D Med 2006:61, referred to in Pawlinowski, J., 'The History of Thinking About Miracles in the West', Southern Medical Journal, 100:12 (2007) p.1235.

Pawlikowski, J., 'The History of Thinking About Miracles in the West', Southern Medical Journal, 100:12 (2007) pp.1229- 1235.

Watson, L, Supernature (London: Book Club Associates, 1973).

Wesp, R., 'Developing Critical Thinking Through the Study of Paranormal Phenomena', Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 25:4 (1998) pp. 275-278.

W.H.O. (World Health Organisation), International Classification of Diseases (Handbook) (2007). Available from: http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/ (Accessed 07.04.10).

Appendix

Lincoln School of Theology
BACHELOR OF ARTS
THEOLOGY AND SOCIETY

RELIGION AT THE FRINGES

Code: Not known
Credit Rating: 15
Level: 5
Subject: Theology
Pre-requisites: N/A
Barred Combinations: N/A
Department: Lincoln School of Theology
Unit Co-ordinator: Jack Cunningham

Unit synopsis

This module complements and develops study in The World's Religions module by exploring aspects of religion and spirituality which are beyond the fringes of mainstream institutional expression. It considers the psychology and theology behind paranormal and sensationalist elements of religion in contemporary British society and around the world, and the recent popularisation of religious conspiracy theories.

Outline of the syllabus

The module explores selected accounts of psychic and paranormal activity in the UK and elsewhere, considering popular, scientific and theological explanations for these phenomena. Historical mainstream and alternative religious teachings about angels, spirits, miracles, mystical experiences etc are explored, and a study is made of established mystery cults and sects, and the conspiracy theories which have often surrounded them.

Learning Outcomes

Subject specific outcomes

On successful completion of the unit students will be able to:

Transferable skills and attributes

On successful completion of the unit students will be able to:

Teaching and learning strategy/method

30 hours contact teaching
40 hours directed study
80 hours independent study

Indicative Reading

W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, Collins Fontana, 1960.

T. Hart, The Secret Spiritual World of Children, Inner Ocean, 2003.

J. J. Heaney, The Sacred and the Psychic: parapsychology and Christian theology, Paulist Press, 1984.

D. Radin, The Conscious Universe, HarperCollins, 1997.

J. Schwebel, Apparitions, Healings and Weeping Madonnas: Christianity & the Paranormal, N.J. Paulist Press, 2004.

D. Tracy, & H. Häring, The Fascination of Evil, SCM Concilium, 1998.

L. Watson, Supernature, Hodder & Stoughton, 1973.

P. H. Wiebe, God and Other Spirits, Oxford University Press, 2004.

Assessment Strategy

Essay- 1,500 words (50%)
Display presentation- 1,500 words equivalent (50%)

Relationship to Professional Body

None

Endnotes

  1. For example, Shirley MacLaine's Out on a Limb (1983, New York: Bantam Books) and Dancing in the Light (1985, New York: Bantam Books).
  2. The official journal of CSICOP, obtainable in the UK from 10 Crescent View, Loughton, Essex, IG10 4PZ.
  3. Both the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (present version: DSM-V1-TR), and the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases (2007 version: ICD-10) identify hallucinations and delusions as typical symptoms of schizophrenia.
  4. This is a well known tale of two young girls, who claimed they played with garden fairies in Cottingley (in Bradford Metropolitan District), and in 1917 provided photographic evidence of the same. Seventy years later one of the girls confessed to having doctored the photographs, although some locals are still convinced that the photographs were real. Further information may be found at: http://www.cottingleyconnect.org.uk/fairies.htm#top.
  5. Here I am referring to quantum laws such as quantum entanglement, and the Heisenburg uncertainty principle. The latter, in quantum mechanics states that, at the sub-atomic level, the more precisely one can measure the nature of one property (for instance, in the case of an electron, its position) the less certain one can be of its other properties (e.g. its velocity). Physicists are divided in how to make sense of this. In the case of quantum entanglement, or non-local connection, sub-atomic objects which are quite individual and separate from other objects nevertheless seem to be interconnected: one object can only be adequately identified and described by the inclusion of the other. Each, though totally separate, seems to be dependent on, and affected by, the other. A good explanation of all of this in layman's language can be found in Bill Bryson's, A Short History of Nearly Everything (2003, London: Doubleday) pp. 183-192.
  6. It presently stands as a draft proposal for a year two (level 5) module in a new BA Theology degree programme at the Lincoln School of Theology, which is a joint enterprise between Lincoln University, Bishop Grosseteste University College, Lincoln Diocese and Lincoln Cathedral.

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